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You can find the current article at its original source at http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jul/15/why-the-number-of-indigenous-deaths-in-the-frontier-wars-matters
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| Version 0 | Version 1 |
|---|---|
| Why the number of Indigenous deaths in the frontier wars matters | Why the number of Indigenous deaths in the frontier wars matters |
| (about 3 hours later) | |
| Precisely how | Precisely how |
| many Indigenous Australians died in the frontier wars that raged across the | many Indigenous Australians died in the frontier wars that raged across the |
| continent after European occupation in 1788? | continent after European occupation in 1788? |
| When writing | When writing |
| about the issue, I have consistently used the figure of 20,000 Indigenous Australians and about 2,000 colonial soldiers, police and settlers. I’ve said this a | about the issue, I have consistently used the figure of 20,000 Indigenous Australians and about 2,000 colonial soldiers, police and settlers. I’ve said this a |
| conservative estimate, based largely on the academic research of Henry | conservative estimate, based largely on the academic research of Henry |
| Reynolds, John Connor and others. | Reynolds, John Connor and others. |
| That figure – | That figure – |
| translating to about 10 Indigenous deaths for each European killed – has been | translating to about 10 Indigenous deaths for each European killed – has been |
| hotly contested by conservative historians, but new | hotly contested by conservative historians, but new |
| collaborative academic research credibly suggests that the real frontier war | collaborative academic research credibly suggests that the real frontier war |
| fatality figure could be at least three times greater, and that the ratio of | fatality figure could be at least three times greater, and that the ratio of |
| black to white deaths could be 44 to one. | black to white deaths could be 44 to one. |
| We will never | We will never |
| know for certain. The documentation needed to determine an exact figure – be it | know for certain. The documentation needed to determine an exact figure – be it |
| 100,000, 60,000, 20,000 or, as many conservative historians insist, far fewer – either never existed or has been destroyed, wilfully or | 100,000, 60,000, 20,000 or, as many conservative historians insist, far fewer – either never existed or has been destroyed, wilfully or |
| accidentally. | accidentally. |
| Certainly the | Certainly the |
| stories of massacres of Indigenous Australians are everywhere in the archives | stories of massacres of Indigenous Australians are everywhere in the archives |
| of the major cultural institutions of Australia and Great Britain. The diaries, | of the major cultural institutions of Australia and Great Britain. The diaries, |
| letters, journals and memoirs of colonial and postcolonial officials, troops, | letters, journals and memoirs of colonial and postcolonial officials, troops, |
| police, farmers, frontiersmen and women are replete with accounts of fights | police, farmers, frontiersmen and women are replete with accounts of fights |
| against – and massacres of – the “marauding blacks”. | against – and massacres of – the “marauding blacks”. |
| Early newspapers | Early newspapers |
| also offer remarkably detailed concurrent and retrospective accounts of | also offer remarkably detailed concurrent and retrospective accounts of |
| frontier violence. Such stories are | frontier violence. Such stories are |
| so often defined by a chilling, deeply disturbing candour, so detached are the | so often defined by a chilling, deeply disturbing candour, so detached are the |
| killers from the humanity of their victims. But read, as I have, enough of them | killers from the humanity of their victims. But read, as I have, enough of them |
| (such as the reminiscences of Korah Halcomb Wills) and you’ll be impressed with | (such as the reminiscences of Korah Halcomb Wills) and you’ll be impressed with |
| an overwhelming sense that the orchestrated violence was very widespread, | an overwhelming sense that the orchestrated violence was very widespread, |
| well-orchestrated and committed continent-wide from occupation until far into | well-orchestrated and committed continent-wide from occupation until far into |
| the 20th century. | the 20th century. |
| There is another | There is another |
| rich source that supports the colonial and postcolonial white evidence. It is a | rich source that supports the colonial and postcolonial white evidence. It is a |
| source that the deniers have long rejected and sought to discredit; the rich | source that the deniers have long rejected and sought to discredit; the rich |
| oral histories in Indigenous communities of the massacres that reverberate as | oral histories in Indigenous communities of the massacres that reverberate as |
| ongoing trauma through the generations. | ongoing trauma through the generations. |
| Many of the | Many of the |
| stories have transmuted into songs and visual artwork, such as the | stories have transmuted into songs and visual artwork, such as the |
| controversial painting Mistake Creek Massacre (depicting the murder of eight | controversial painting Mistake Creek Massacre (depicting the murder of eight |
| Indigenous men, women and children in 1915), by the Kimberley artist Queenie | Indigenous men, women and children in 1915), by the Kimberley artist Queenie |
| McKenzie. | McKenzie. |
| When considering | When considering |
| the cultural resonance of frontier war it helps to remember that the last | the cultural resonance of frontier war it helps to remember that the last |
| widely-accepted massacre, at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928, is | widely-accepted massacre, at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928, is |
| considerably closer to the living memory of the communities it affected than | considerably closer to the living memory of the communities it affected than |
| the invasion of Gallipoli in 1915 - the first act in a war that would kill | the invasion of Gallipoli in 1915 - the first act in a war that would kill |
| about 62,000 Australians and, contestably, define the nationhood of the new | about 62,000 Australians and, contestably, define the nationhood of the new |
| federation (incidentally, one of the main perpetrators of the Coniston Massacre was a | federation (incidentally, one of the main perpetrators of the Coniston Massacre was a |
| Gallipoli veteran, George Murray, who would later boast in an interview about | Gallipoli veteran, George Murray, who would later boast in an interview about |
| killing territorial Aboriginals.) | killing territorial Aboriginals.) |
| There is no | There is no |
| denying the profound social, political and cultural impact of Australia’s world | denying the profound social, political and cultural impact of Australia’s world |
| war one losses. From a population of about five million more than 416,000 men | war one losses. From a population of about five million more than 416,000 men |
| enlisted, some 62,000 died, another 155,000 were wounded. The hole was vast and | enlisted, some 62,000 died, another 155,000 were wounded. The hole was vast and |
| profound. | profound. |
| But is it | But is it |
| relevant when discussing the number of Indigenous Australians killed in | relevant when discussing the number of Indigenous Australians killed in |
| frontier war? | frontier war? |
| Yes. Two historians, | Yes. Two historians, |
| Raymond Evans and Robert Ørsted-Jensen, have concluded that in Queensland alone | Raymond Evans and Robert Ørsted-Jensen, have concluded that in Queensland alone |
| – the epicentre of frontier war in the mid-19th century Australia – | – the epicentre of frontier war in the mid-19th century Australia – |
| at least 65,180 Aboriginal Australians were killed from the 1820s until the | at least 65,180 Aboriginal Australians were killed from the 1820s until the |
| early 1900s. | early 1900s. |
| Considering that | Considering that |
| their research focuses on Queensland alone, their findings are freighted with a | their research focuses on Queensland alone, their findings are freighted with a |
| disturbing implication about the number of Indigenous Australians killed | disturbing implication about the number of Indigenous Australians killed |
| continent-wide. Australian deaths | continent-wide. Australian deaths |
| in world war one would pale in comparison. | in world war one would pale in comparison. |
| If Evans and | If Evans and |
| Ørsted-Jensen are to be taken seriously (and, on the basis of a paper they | Ørsted-Jensen are to be taken seriously (and, on the basis of a paper they |
| delivered at a conference in Queensland last week, their research deserves to | delivered at a conference in Queensland last week, their research deserves to |
| be pored over and discussed widely) then Australia should be poised for a new | be pored over and discussed widely) then Australia should be poised for a new |
| debate about its bloody colonial genesis and the near eradication of one of the | debate about its bloody colonial genesis and the near eradication of one of the |
| world’s oldest peoples. | world’s oldest peoples. |
| Evans is a | Evans is a |
| respected historian who has been researching Australian frontier violence since | respected historian who has been researching Australian frontier violence since |
| the 1960s, and Ørsted-Jensen a Danish master of social science and doctoral | the 1960s, and Ørsted-Jensen a Danish master of social science and doctoral |
| candidate at the University of Queensland. They have scoured the remaining | candidate at the University of Queensland. They have scoured the remaining |
| records of the Queensland Native Police Force and studied the prevalence of | records of the Queensland Native Police Force and studied the prevalence of |
| “black police” barracks across the colony’s frontier from 1859 to 1898 to | “black police” barracks across the colony’s frontier from 1859 to 1898 to |
| determine the approximate number of patrols, contacts and killings based on | determine the approximate number of patrols, contacts and killings based on |
| reported body counts. Their paper, Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier, reads: | reported body counts. Their paper, Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier, reads: |
| We arrive | We arrive |
| at the total of 41, 040 Aborigines killed during 3,420 official frontier | at the total of 41, 040 Aborigines killed during 3,420 official frontier |
| dispersals across almost 40 years of conflict. This mortality figure is a | dispersals across almost 40 years of conflict. This mortality figure is a |
| statistical projection, produced by cautiously sampling fragmentary evidence | statistical projection, produced by cautiously sampling fragmentary evidence |
| from the long project of land dispossession. It is not and can never be a | from the long project of land dispossession. It is not and can never be a |
| precisely accurate figure. That number will never be known. | precisely accurate figure. That number will never be known. |
| Let us be | Let us be |
| clear about what we are claiming here. The 41,000 death rate does not represent | clear about what we are claiming here. The 41,000 death rate does not represent |
| the full quotient of killings. It is merely a Native Police statistic that does | the full quotient of killings. It is merely a Native Police statistic that does |
| not cover official dispersal activities across the prior decade of 1849-59. | not cover official dispersal activities across the prior decade of 1849-59. |
| These may have accounted for another 3,000-4,000 deaths. | These may have accounted for another 3,000-4,000 deaths. |
| Neither does | Neither does |
| their figure include vigilante actions against Indigenous people by settlers and | their figure include vigilante actions against Indigenous people by settlers and |
| raiding parties. Based on a sample of 644 frontier clashes, Ørsted-Jensen found | raiding parties. Based on a sample of 644 frontier clashes, Ørsted-Jensen found |
| 57% involved Native Police and the remaining 43% settlers. | 57% involved Native Police and the remaining 43% settlers. |
| Given there were | Given there were |
| 3,420 official dispersals across 40 years, the historians argue “the settlers' | 3,420 official dispersals across 40 years, the historians argue “the settlers' |
| 43% must approximate to another 2,580 attacks”. “Together, our | 43% must approximate to another 2,580 attacks”. “Together, our |
| totals for settlers and Native Police amount to no less than 61,680 in 6,000 | totals for settlers and Native Police amount to no less than 61,680 in 6,000 |
| attacks,” they conclude. Evans and | attacks,” they conclude. Evans and |
| Ørsted-Jensen add “an estimated minimum of 3,500 kills associated with Native | Ørsted-Jensen add “an estimated minimum of 3,500 kills associated with Native |
| Police activity and 1,500 European deaths to “arrive at an aggregate 66,800 | Police activity and 1,500 European deaths to “arrive at an aggregate 66,800 |
| killed” between the 1820s and early 1900s. They write: | killed” between the 1820s and early 1900s. They write: |
| We are aware | We are aware |
| that we have been incrementally conducting this research during a time when | that we have been incrementally conducting this research during a time when |
| conscientious historians have been pilloried for even suggesting that a range | |
| of serious massacres once occurred in Australia. We are acutely | of serious massacres once occurred in Australia. We are acutely |
| sensitive to the wider denialist mood in some sectors of Australian society and | sensitive to the wider denialist mood in some sectors of Australian society and |
| its mainstream media. And so we proceed with caution and conservative | its mainstream media. And so we proceed with caution and conservative |
| assessment. | assessment. |
| The frontier war, | The frontier war, |
| they say, was “our Great War – a war for both the defense and conquest | they say, was “our Great War – a war for both the defense and conquest |
| of Australia”. | of Australia”. |
| In the countdown | In the countdown |
| to the centenary of Anzac this proposition might pose troubling questions for | to the centenary of Anzac this proposition might pose troubling questions for |
| those who view this country’s contribution to world war one as an expression of | those who view this country’s contribution to world war one as an expression of |
| uniquely Australian values. Such as: what did | uniquely Australian values. Such as: what did |
| the other war say about the real genesis of Australian nationhood? | the other war say about the real genesis of Australian nationhood? |