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London’s high-rise future: thrusting, exhilarating, yet strangely insubstantial London’s high-rise future: thrusting, exhilarating, yet strangely insubstantial
(about 1 hour later)
A series of fortunate events brought me to a floor somewhereA series of fortunate events brought me to a floor somewhere
in the mid-twenties of London’s most acuminate skyscraper, the 72-storey,in the mid-twenties of London’s most acuminate skyscraper, the 72-storey,
306-metre Shard. I’d been up to the 56th floor of the Shard when it306-metre Shard. I’d been up to the 56th floor of the Shard when it
was still under construction, and marvelled at the astonishing views over thewas still under construction, and marvelled at the astonishing views over the
great greyish mass of London, to where the city fades out into the raggedlygreat greyish mass of London, to where the city fades out into the raggedly
green vistas of the world beyond the M25.green vistas of the world beyond the M25.
But the vista from nearerBut the vista from nearer
to the top is a deceptive one: you’re so high above the city that it becomes an unreadableto the top is a deceptive one: you’re so high above the city that it becomes an unreadable
and amorphous mass. Down on the 20-somethingth floor, I had an angle thatand amorphous mass. Down on the 20-somethingth floor, I had an angle that
allowed me to grasp the great gearing of the built environment into the allowed me to grasp the great gearing of the built environment into the
engine of growth in our economy. And if I’d had any doubts about what thatengine of growth in our economy. And if I’d had any doubts about what that
engine was, Irvine Sellar, the developer responsible for the Shard, was right atengine was, Irvine Sellar, the developer responsible for the Shard, was right at
hand to tell me. “We need,” he said, “to maintain the aspects of London thathand to tell me. “We need,” he said, “to maintain the aspects of London that
make it such an attractive destination for flight capital.” Thismake it such an attractive destination for flight capital.” This
Alan-Sugar-alike spoke without the least scintilla of irony. I’dAlan-Sugar-alike spoke without the least scintilla of irony. I’d
heard the expression “flight capital” before, but never spoken with suchheard the expression “flight capital” before, but never spoken with such
implicit valorisation; for Sellar, flight capitalimplicit valorisation; for Sellar, flight capital
was definitely a Good Thing.was definitely a Good Thing.
Whereas Victorian London was built on the tradingWhereas Victorian London was built on the trading
profits from a world-girdling empire, its 21st-century successor isprofits from a world-girdling empire, its 21st-century successor is
being airily spun from the aerated finance frothing atop money flowing frombeing airily spun from the aerated finance frothing atop money flowing from
other less stable economies. For flight capital, the important thing about theother less stable economies. For flight capital, the important thing about the
city is that it’s not St Petersburg, or Kiev, or Beijing for that matter.city is that it’s not St Petersburg, or Kiev, or Beijing for that matter.
It’sIt’s
become a shibboleth of contemporary architectural discourse to lisp this playbecome a shibboleth of contemporary architectural discourse to lisp this play
upon Adolf Loos: “form follows finance”. But the idea that the design ofupon Adolf Loos: “form follows finance”. But the idea that the design of
buildings is predicated upon a coefficient of investment and revenue stream isbuildings is predicated upon a coefficient of investment and revenue stream is
really nothing new. It certainly was applied to the great herringbone of dormitoryreally nothing new. It certainly was applied to the great herringbone of dormitory
streets lain down in London by the spec’ builders of the 19th century – and I daresay also to the construction of the Roman city walls asstreets lain down in London by the spec’ builders of the 19th century – and I daresay also to the construction of the Roman city walls as
well.well.
No,No,
what’s distinctive about the new metropolis taking shape underwhat’s distinctive about the new metropolis taking shape under
the spindly legs of myriad cranes is its incorporation – as a design trope – ofthe spindly legs of myriad cranes is its incorporation – as a design trope – of
the precise nature of its investment capital and anticipated revenue streams.the precise nature of its investment capital and anticipated revenue streams.
Which is not to say all the money pouring into London is flight capital – farWhich is not to say all the money pouring into London is flight capital – far
from it; a great deal of the available finance is the same sort of bullishnessfrom it; a great deal of the available finance is the same sort of bullishness
that was rampaging around the system before the 2007-8 crash. Seeking highthat was rampaging around the system before the 2007-8 crash. Seeking high
returns, investors are inevitably attracted to a local economy that has seenreturns, investors are inevitably attracted to a local economy that has seen
property prices – and attendant land values – exponentially increase once more.property prices – and attendant land values – exponentially increase once more.
Looking down from the Shard along the lazy s-bend of the Thames, I wasLooking down from the Shard along the lazy s-bend of the Thames, I was
privileged by a vision of the future. The London of a quarter century henceprivileged by a vision of the future. The London of a quarter century hence
would, without doubt, be a high-rise city; moreover, it wouldn’t be a high-risewould, without doubt, be a high-rise city; moreover, it wouldn’t be a high-rise
city of the stark 20th-century form taken by so many North Americancity of the stark 20th-century form taken by so many North American
downtowns (not so much row-after-row of Mies van der Rohe as thickets ofdowntowns (not so much row-after-row of Mies van der Rohe as thickets of
rectilinear towers) but a distinctively Cockney agglutination of parametricallyrectilinear towers) but a distinctively Cockney agglutination of parametrically
wave-formed glass, faux-granolithic rendering, suddenly-silvering timberwave-formed glass, faux-granolithic rendering, suddenly-silvering timber
cladding and good old London stock brick.cladding and good old London stock brick.
TheThe
London of the 2040s will be high, certainly – yet it will also be wide: a greatLondon of the 2040s will be high, certainly – yet it will also be wide: a great
sweep of mega-structures spreading from Canary Wharf in the east to Wandsworthsweep of mega-structures spreading from Canary Wharf in the east to Wandsworth
Bridge in the west. These behemoths are already thronging on and immediatelyBridge in the west. These behemoths are already thronging on and immediately
behind the embankments, with significant clusters of new high rises behind thebehind the embankments, with significant clusters of new high rises behind the
South Bank, along the riverside between Vauxhall and Battersea, while there’s aSouth Bank, along the riverside between Vauxhall and Battersea, while there’s a
general but insidious densification radiating from the City to the West End.general but insidious densification radiating from the City to the West End.
Londoners are easily transfixed by the new office blocks being built in the City itself:Londoners are easily transfixed by the new office blocks being built in the City itself:
the Cheesegrater and the Walkie-Talkie are joining the Gherkin and the Heronthe Cheesegrater and the Walkie-Talkie are joining the Gherkin and the Heron
Tower to form a cluster of structures that have a distinctively 21st-century appearance; these are icon-cum-logos, whose forms don’t simply embodyTower to form a cluster of structures that have a distinctively 21st-century appearance; these are icon-cum-logos, whose forms don’t simply embody
financial constraints, but also articulate the symbolic unity of fungiblefinancial constraints, but also articulate the symbolic unity of fungible
objects and their branding. If Victorian goods were typically exchanged forobjects and their branding. If Victorian goods were typically exchanged for
their utility – the London docks circa 1900 being full of ships unloading suchtheir utility – the London docks circa 1900 being full of ships unloading such
industrial precursors as phosphates, timber and cotton – then our own neo-Elizabethanindustrial precursors as phosphates, timber and cotton – then our own neo-Elizabethan
products accrue value mostly because of the labels attached to them.products accrue value mostly because of the labels attached to them.
AsAs
it is to the Hermes scarf or the Gucci handbag so it is to the Pinnacle, theit is to the Hermes scarf or the Gucci handbag so it is to the Pinnacle, the
skyscraper putatively shaped like a rolled-up sheet of paper that’s currentlyskyscraper putatively shaped like a rolled-up sheet of paper that’s currently
on hold, but which will – I’ve no doubt – soon enough furl upwards. Theseon hold, but which will – I’ve no doubt – soon enough furl upwards. These
buildings are childlike in their aspiration to impose their crude shapes on thebuildings are childlike in their aspiration to impose their crude shapes on the
city as a form of advertising. Their investors wish us to be drawn to theircity as a form of advertising. Their investors wish us to be drawn to their
giant handbags not because they’re particularly well-designed or capacious, butgiant handbags not because they’re particularly well-designed or capacious, but
simply because they’re identifiable. The rhetoric that surrounds propertysimply because they’re identifiable. The rhetoric that surrounds property
letting – both commercial and residential – in contemporary London is full ofletting – both commercial and residential – in contemporary London is full of
buzzwords such as “experience”, “excitement” and “cosmopolitan” that mask thebuzzwords such as “experience”, “excitement” and “cosmopolitan” that mask the
crude facts: you’re buying a little box of ticky-tacky for millions simplycrude facts: you’re buying a little box of ticky-tacky for millions simply
because of its location within a rapidly expanding property price bubble. Moreover,because of its location within a rapidly expanding property price bubble. Moreover,
you’re probably a south-east Asian or Middle Eastern investor who’s buying theyou’re probably a south-east Asian or Middle Eastern investor who’s buying the
little box not as a domicile, but as a magical hope chest in the confines oflittle box not as a domicile, but as a magical hope chest in the confines of
which your money will grow.which your money will grow.
The most spirited – and eminent –The most spirited – and eminent –
critic of looming London has been Simon Jenkins. In a recent article for thecritic of looming London has been Simon Jenkins. In a recent article for the
London Standard, Jenkins pointed out that businesses are abandoning high-riseLondon Standard, Jenkins pointed out that businesses are abandoning high-rise
offices on the grounds that “high costs and shrunken floor plates” make themoffices on the grounds that “high costs and shrunken floor plates” make them
economically inefficient. The Gherkin, he observes, is bankrupt, while many ofeconomically inefficient. The Gherkin, he observes, is bankrupt, while many of
the new office towers stand empty, “their owners selling to Gulf funds andthe new office towers stand empty, “their owners selling to Gulf funds and
hoping one day for an upturn”.hoping one day for an upturn”.
As for the burgeoning residential towers,As for the burgeoning residential towers,
Jenkins concurs with me that they are “an eccentric economic microclimate orJenkins concurs with me that they are “an eccentric economic microclimate or
tax-evading savings parked in the sky over London”. But Jenkins is too much oftax-evading savings parked in the sky over London”. But Jenkins is too much of
a capitalist himself to accept the full and remorseless logic of the market.a capitalist himself to accept the full and remorseless logic of the market.
Good meliorist that he is, he sees the built environment as, in principle,Good meliorist that he is, he sees the built environment as, in principle,
susceptible to reason and planning – but in fact, most of London’ssusceptible to reason and planning – but in fact, most of London’s
developmental characteristics are a function of caprice and serendipity ratherdevelopmental characteristics are a function of caprice and serendipity rather
than systematic thought.than systematic thought.
The 1894 London Building Act confined structures inThe 1894 London Building Act confined structures in
the centre of the city to 80 feet, and it was passed in response to thethe centre of the city to 80 feet, and it was passed in response to the
erection of Queen Anne’s Mansions, a Victorian proto-high-rise apartment blockerection of Queen Anne’s Mansions, a Victorian proto-high-rise apartment block
of 14 storeys, that the reigning Queen herself objected to on the grounds thatof 14 storeys, that the reigning Queen herself objected to on the grounds that
it blocked her view of the Houses of Parliament. London’s low-rise aspect was ait blocked her view of the Houses of Parliament. London’s low-rise aspect was a
function of royal prerogative as much as defined policy; while the low-rise,function of royal prerogative as much as defined policy; while the low-rise,
low-density cottage estates that Jenkins champions came into being as thelow-density cottage estates that Jenkins champions came into being as the
spatial correlate of a general move towards economic equality, based on thespatial correlate of a general move towards economic equality, based on the
assumption that those on workers’ wages should be provided with decent andassumption that those on workers’ wages should be provided with decent and
genuinely affordable homes.genuinely affordable homes.
The cottage estates have long since been hived offThe cottage estates have long since been hived off
by London councils, either to their tenants (most of who sold on at a profit) or, more recently, to soi disante “housing associations” that have in fact acted as stalking horses for wholesale privatisation. No, the materialisationby London councils, either to their tenants (most of who sold on at a profit) or, more recently, to soi disante “housing associations” that have in fact acted as stalking horses for wholesale privatisation. No, the materialisation
of capital is intrinsic to anarchic evolution of London, so much so that forof capital is intrinsic to anarchic evolution of London, so much so that for
anything to look significantly different, or function significantly better, ananything to look significantly different, or function significantly better, an
economic – and therefore political – transformation would be required ofeconomic – and therefore political – transformation would be required of
unparalleled radicalism.unparalleled radicalism.
Meanwhile,Meanwhile,
bubbles are shiny, translucent and easily popped – and London’s new builtbubbles are shiny, translucent and easily popped – and London’s new built
environment shares the same attributes. Its evanescence is as much a functionenvironment shares the same attributes. Its evanescence is as much a function
of short building specifications – in many cases, 50 years or less – as it is ofof short building specifications – in many cases, 50 years or less – as it is of
the febrile nature of global capital markets. Or rather, the two are oncethe febrile nature of global capital markets. Or rather, the two are once
again aspects of the same phenomenon: rising land values mean developers canagain aspects of the same phenomenon: rising land values mean developers can
realise more money by demolishing existing buildings and erecting bigger onesrealise more money by demolishing existing buildings and erecting bigger ones
on the same footprint. Indeed, the logic of capital accumulation means thaton the same footprint. Indeed, the logic of capital accumulation means that
they have to demolish the old andthey have to demolish the old and
build the new, simply to make more money for investors.build the new, simply to make more money for investors.
On thisOn this
problematic, the question is not if London will become a high-rise city – butproblematic, the question is not if London will become a high-rise city – but
how soon? Moreover, there is, so far as late capitalists are concerned, ahow soon? Moreover, there is, so far as late capitalists are concerned, a
virtuous circle in the relationship between the free flow of money and economicvirtuous circle in the relationship between the free flow of money and economic
migrants. It would be heartening to imagine that Londoners stepped aside frommigrants. It would be heartening to imagine that Londoners stepped aside from
the UKIP landslide in the European parliament elections because theythe UKIP landslide in the European parliament elections because they
objected to Nigel Farage’s dog-whistle politics (an ultrasonic alert to anyobjected to Nigel Farage’s dog-whistle politics (an ultrasonic alert to any
racists listening). But the truth almost certainly is that at an unconsciousracists listening). But the truth almost certainly is that at an unconscious
level, we understand that the people fleeing here are following the moneylevel, we understand that the people fleeing here are following the money
extracted – often illegally – from the faltering economies they’ve left behind,extracted – often illegally – from the faltering economies they’ve left behind,
and that London’s prosperity, under the current dispensation, depends equallyand that London’s prosperity, under the current dispensation, depends equally
on high investment returns and low wages.on high investment returns and low wages.
AA
friend who transplanted to Manhattan some 20 years ago once casuallyfriend who transplanted to Manhattan some 20 years ago once casually
remarked to me apropos the skyline of her native city, “It’s as dull asremarked to me apropos the skyline of her native city, “It’s as dull as
ditchwater” – and one of the problems that has to be confronted squarely byditchwater” – and one of the problems that has to be confronted squarely by
critics of London’s latest form of capital instantiation is that it’s far fromcritics of London’s latest form of capital instantiation is that it’s far from
being ditchwater. Indeed, it’s as exhilarating as Niagara. I find the lit-upbeing ditchwater. Indeed, it’s as exhilarating as Niagara. I find the lit-up
phallus of the Shard thrusting skywards such a beautiful site that I’ve moved phallus of the Shard thrusting skywards such a beautiful sight that I’ve moved
my bed so I can go to sleep looking at it.my bed so I can go to sleep looking at it.
Standing in the tower itself,Standing in the tower itself,
listening to Irvine Sellar hymn the benefits of flight capital, I was even morelistening to Irvine Sellar hymn the benefits of flight capital, I was even more
exhilarated. Of course, when you allow your eye to zero in on the detailing –exhilarated. Of course, when you allow your eye to zero in on the detailing –
the useless postmodern furbelows, the noxiousness of ducts – the excitementthe useless postmodern furbelows, the noxiousness of ducts – the excitement
rapidly subsides; however, the genius of this new form of architecture is thatrapidly subsides; however, the genius of this new form of architecture is that
it defies you to regard the particular as distinct from goggling at the whole.it defies you to regard the particular as distinct from goggling at the whole.
You might’ve thought the high modernism of the International Style tendedYou might’ve thought the high modernism of the International Style tended
towards “the city” becoming an undifferentiated, pre-stressed concrete whole,towards “the city” becoming an undifferentiated, pre-stressed concrete whole,
but in truth the very simplicity of those great mid- and late-20th-centurybut in truth the very simplicity of those great mid- and late-20th-century
skyscrapers meant that the eye sought to distinguish one rectilinear blockskyscrapers meant that the eye sought to distinguish one rectilinear block
from its neighbour.from its neighbour.
The emergent London of the 21st century is theThe emergent London of the 21st century is the
antithesis of this: the detailing is so profuse and so gimmicky that the viewerantithesis of this: the detailing is so profuse and so gimmicky that the viewer
resists being ensnared by balustrades and caught up in arrases of pampas grassresists being ensnared by balustrades and caught up in arrases of pampas grass
– her eye flees from one behemoth cartoon outline to the next, before giving up– her eye flees from one behemoth cartoon outline to the next, before giving up
and simply goggling at the whole winking, steaming, lit-up panoply.and simply goggling at the whole winking, steaming, lit-up panoply.
LincolnLincoln
Steffens notoriously said after a visit to immediately post-revolutionarySteffens notoriously said after a visit to immediately post-revolutionary
Russia: “I’ve seen the future and it works.” But contemporary Londoners cannotRussia: “I’ve seen the future and it works.” But contemporary Londoners cannot
help but feel that they’re witnessing a working future every day: the vasthelp but feel that they’re witnessing a working future every day: the vast
civil engineering projects underway in the city are facts on the ground and upcivil engineering projects underway in the city are facts on the ground and up
in the sky, and to quote Steffen’s nemesis, Stalin: “Quantity has a quality allin the sky, and to quote Steffen’s nemesis, Stalin: “Quantity has a quality all
its own.”its own.”
The visceral excitement we feel when we witness quite this muchThe visceral excitement we feel when we witness quite this much
apparently purposive human activity carries the day – and the subsequent ones. How else can we possibly explain theapparently purposive human activity carries the day – and the subsequent ones. How else can we possibly explain the
excrescence that is the Arcelor Mittal Orbit? In any culture governed by aexcrescence that is the Arcelor Mittal Orbit? In any culture governed by a
Platonic and aestheticised public ethic this would be pulled down by a baying mob,Platonic and aestheticised public ethic this would be pulled down by a baying mob,
while Anish Kapoor would be burnt on the mangled and steely bones of his ownwhile Anish Kapoor would be burnt on the mangled and steely bones of his own
hubris.hubris.
TheThe
curious thing is that in a city in which the construction of 250 new high risescurious thing is that in a city in which the construction of 250 new high rises
within the next decade is being seriously mooted, there’s no real sense ofwithin the next decade is being seriously mooted, there’s no real sense of
progress. The high-rise boom that began in Chicago in the late 19thprogress. The high-rise boom that began in Chicago in the late 19th
century was accompanied by vaulting propaganda, and a sense that these towerscentury was accompanied by vaulting propaganda, and a sense that these towers
were implicit in a human eschatology, one that would inevitably culminate inwere implicit in a human eschatology, one that would inevitably culminate in
the unification of heaven and earth.the unification of heaven and earth.
Post 9/11 the skyscraper has been purgedPost 9/11 the skyscraper has been purged
of its theological associations: Babel was indeed built, and Islamicistof its theological associations: Babel was indeed built, and Islamicist
terrorists took God’s part and knocked it down. London’s new up-thrust isterrorists took God’s part and knocked it down. London’s new up-thrust is
evanescent, translucent and, even to those who work and live in it, strangelyevanescent, translucent and, even to those who work and live in it, strangely
insubstantial. Buildings designed by hand, using pens, pencils, paper andinsubstantial. Buildings designed by hand, using pens, pencils, paper and
rulers retained an element of the haptic – touched in the making, they wererulers retained an element of the haptic – touched in the making, they were
grasped once built.grasped once built.
Contemporary structures, conjured up in virtual space byContemporary structures, conjured up in virtual space by
CAD programmes, also bear the paradoxically insensate impress of theirCAD programmes, also bear the paradoxically insensate impress of their
origination: the mirrored windows of 1980s office blocks were the precursors oforigination: the mirrored windows of 1980s office blocks were the precursors of
today’s screen-based city, wherein facades have the queasy permeability oftoday’s screen-based city, wherein facades have the queasy permeability of
VDUs, while windows and doorways resemble so many USB sockets which areVDUs, while windows and doorways resemble so many USB sockets which are
entered and exited not by living, feeling people but by their avatars: time-impoverishedentered and exited not by living, feeling people but by their avatars: time-impoverished
workers wearing earphones, walking with their eyes locked on their mobileworkers wearing earphones, walking with their eyes locked on their mobile
computing devices, and unaware of the context within which they operate, onlycomputing devices, and unaware of the context within which they operate, only
of their GPS-plotted location.of their GPS-plotted location.
Yes,Yes,
New London is a city mediated by the technology of bi-directional digital mediaNew London is a city mediated by the technology of bi-directional digital media
– it’s this that gives it its intangible atmosphere and disorienting air. But at– it’s this that gives it its intangible atmosphere and disorienting air. But at
least there’s one thing we have to be grateful for: the new technology hasleast there’s one thing we have to be grateful for: the new technology has
banished that estate agents’ fiction “village London”. No longer canbanished that estate agents’ fiction “village London”. No longer can
neighbourhoods be spuriously created in order to support property prices, forneighbourhoods be spuriously created in order to support property prices, for
the entire centre of the city has become an undifferentiated and colloidal massthe entire centre of the city has become an undifferentiated and colloidal mass
of semi-solidified financial liquidity. I call it “jelly London”.of semi-solidified financial liquidity. I call it “jelly London”.
Writing in hisWriting in his
magisterial work The Production of Space (which, although published in 1974,magisterial work The Production of Space (which, although published in 1974,
was eerily prescient), the French Marxist social historian Henri Lefebvrewas eerily prescient), the French Marxist social historian Henri Lefebvre
observed that cities were the concretisation of markets by means of enactedobserved that cities were the concretisation of markets by means of enacted
networks. “The corresponding buildings, in the towns, bear material testimonynetworks. “The corresponding buildings, in the towns, bear material testimony
to this evolution. Thus social space, and especially urban space, evolved into this evolution. Thus social space, and especially urban space, evolved in
all its diversity – and with a structure far more reminiscent of flaky mille-feuille pastry than of theall its diversity – and with a structure far more reminiscent of flaky mille-feuille pastry than of the
homogeneous and isotropic space of classical (Euclidean/Cartesian)homogeneous and isotropic space of classical (Euclidean/Cartesian)
mathematics.”mathematics.”
However,However,
if old London was just such a flaky pastry – which is what gave it itsif old London was just such a flaky pastry – which is what gave it its
indefinable “charm” – then the paradox of its successor city is that it’s anindefinable “charm” – then the paradox of its successor city is that it’s an
image of the mille-feuille ratherimage of the mille-feuille rather
than the real biscuit. The privatisation of public space continues apace, withthan the real biscuit. The privatisation of public space continues apace, with
new developments sectioning off parts of the city and subjecting them to rulenew developments sectioning off parts of the city and subjecting them to rule
by security guards who patrol their precincts, checking out that everything isby security guards who patrol their precincts, checking out that everything is
running smoothly in the chain coffee shops where mille-feuille pastry is sold.running smoothly in the chain coffee shops where mille-feuille pastry is sold.
You might imagine that such a stateYou might imagine that such a state
of affairs would depress me – yet it doesn’t. London has been known as theof affairs would depress me – yet it doesn’t. London has been known as the
Great Wen for centuries: not so much a city as a giant purulent infection onGreat Wen for centuries: not so much a city as a giant purulent infection on
the body of languishing England. The city’s capacity for unrestrained growththe body of languishing England. The city’s capacity for unrestrained growth
was expressed laterally for most of its history – now its being vertically (andwas expressed laterally for most of its history – now its being vertically (and
virtually) articulated.virtually) articulated.
Yet it’s precisely London’s slack planning, andYet it’s precisely London’s slack planning, and
banjaxed Bojo governance, that give cause for hope rather than despair. If thebanjaxed Bojo governance, that give cause for hope rather than despair. If the
city’s relentless burgeoning is currently the solidest possible example of thecity’s relentless burgeoning is currently the solidest possible example of the
contradictions implicit in late capitalism, then it may well also be the casecontradictions implicit in late capitalism, then it may well also be the case
that – as Marx foresaw in The Communistthat – as Marx foresaw in The Communist
Manifesto – “All that is solid melts into air.”Manifesto – “All that is solid melts into air.”
Will Self is speaking at Kings Place, London N1 tonight as part of the London Festival of Architecture. The event is sold out.Will Self is speaking at Kings Place, London N1 tonight as part of the London Festival of Architecture. The event is sold out.
• London's skyline, before and after – an interactive guide• London's skyline, before and after – an interactive guide