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| Its Defenses Undone by a Virus, France Seeks Lessons From a Lost War | Its Defenses Undone by a Virus, France Seeks Lessons From a Lost War |
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| PARIS — It became the indispensable book of the pandemic, its French author revealing how society’s weaknesses and human frailties gave way to disaster. As the coronavirus tore through France, intellectuals, historians and journalists cracked open their old copies in search of eternal truths in an unsettling time. | PARIS — It became the indispensable book of the pandemic, its French author revealing how society’s weaknesses and human frailties gave way to disaster. As the coronavirus tore through France, intellectuals, historians and journalists cracked open their old copies in search of eternal truths in an unsettling time. |
| No, it was not Albert Camus’s “The Plague.’’ It was “Strange Defeat’’ by Marc Bloch. | No, it was not Albert Camus’s “The Plague.’’ It was “Strange Defeat’’ by Marc Bloch. |
| In the country that gave the world the classic novel, it is “Strange Defeat’’ — a scholarly dissection about the fall of France in 1940 not widely known even inside the country — that has instead become the reference to understand what went wrong this time. | In the country that gave the world the classic novel, it is “Strange Defeat’’ — a scholarly dissection about the fall of France in 1940 not widely known even inside the country — that has instead become the reference to understand what went wrong this time. |
| Why did France record one of the world’s highest Covid-19 death tolls and mortality rates? Why is it expected to suffer a catastrophic drop of 11 percent in its gross domestic product? | Why did France record one of the world’s highest Covid-19 death tolls and mortality rates? Why is it expected to suffer a catastrophic drop of 11 percent in its gross domestic product? |
| Some French have sought clues in “Strange Defeat,’’ which described a country that, in 1940, believed it had the best army in the world but that was trounced by Hitler’s forces in six short weeks. | Some French have sought clues in “Strange Defeat,’’ which described a country that, in 1940, believed it had the best army in the world but that was trounced by Hitler’s forces in six short weeks. |
| Bloch, a historian and army officer, wrote the book in the months following France’s collapse, explaining how an ossified bureaucracy and an out-of-touch elite had left his country without the proper defenses and without the critical capacity to adapt to a rapidly changing situation on the ground. | Bloch, a historian and army officer, wrote the book in the months following France’s collapse, explaining how an ossified bureaucracy and an out-of-touch elite had left his country without the proper defenses and without the critical capacity to adapt to a rapidly changing situation on the ground. |
| To some readers, the parallels to 2020 cannot be ignored. | To some readers, the parallels to 2020 cannot be ignored. |
| In the early months of 2020, as the virus ravaged China and then found a European foothold in Italy, France watched with confidence, seemingly secure behind a health care system that it has long believed to be one of the world’s best, if not the best. | In the early months of 2020, as the virus ravaged China and then found a European foothold in Italy, France watched with confidence, seemingly secure behind a health care system that it has long believed to be one of the world’s best, if not the best. |
| But the virus quickly overwhelmed the country, bereft of masks, tests, ventilators and other defenses and led by officials who remained always a few steps behind what President Emmanuel Macron called the “invisible enemy.’’ | But the virus quickly overwhelmed the country, bereft of masks, tests, ventilators and other defenses and led by officials who remained always a few steps behind what President Emmanuel Macron called the “invisible enemy.’’ |
| “Marc Bloch writes in his book that France’s army, supposedly the world’s best, collapsed on its own soil within a matter of weeks in a climate of dismay, shock and incomprehension,” said Jérôme Fourquet, the director of opinion at IFOP, a major polling organization. | “Marc Bloch writes in his book that France’s army, supposedly the world’s best, collapsed on its own soil within a matter of weeks in a climate of dismay, shock and incomprehension,” said Jérôme Fourquet, the director of opinion at IFOP, a major polling organization. |
| “We believed our health care system would be an insurmountable rampart against the epidemic,’’ Mr. Fourquet said. ‘‘But when the attack came, we realized that it wasn’t true. We were shocked to learn that our health care system was disorganized, we didn’t have stocks of medication or face masks or tests.’’ | “We believed our health care system would be an insurmountable rampart against the epidemic,’’ Mr. Fourquet said. ‘‘But when the attack came, we realized that it wasn’t true. We were shocked to learn that our health care system was disorganized, we didn’t have stocks of medication or face masks or tests.’’ |
| As in 1940, France was left reeling. Today, as France gradually pulls itself out of one of the world’s strictest lockdowns and steels itself against a looming economic crisis, the French are among the most pessimistic in Europe and the most critical of their government’s handling of the outbreak, according to polls by Mr. Fourquet and others. | As in 1940, France was left reeling. Today, as France gradually pulls itself out of one of the world’s strictest lockdowns and steels itself against a looming economic crisis, the French are among the most pessimistic in Europe and the most critical of their government’s handling of the outbreak, according to polls by Mr. Fourquet and others. |
| The pessimism has been fueled by France’s perceived downgrade in the global pecking order, something about which it, as a former great power, remains extremely sensitive. And once again, as in 1940, France’s historical rival, Germany, has come out ahead. Though Germany has recorded nearly 9,000 deaths, it has outperformed other Western nations in its handling of the crisis. France’s death toll is more than 29,000. | The pessimism has been fueled by France’s perceived downgrade in the global pecking order, something about which it, as a former great power, remains extremely sensitive. And once again, as in 1940, France’s historical rival, Germany, has come out ahead. Though Germany has recorded nearly 9,000 deaths, it has outperformed other Western nations in its handling of the crisis. France’s death toll is more than 29,000. |
| “France tends to compare itself unfavorably to Germany, but we reassure ourselves by comparing ourselves to the Italians: We’re not as good as the Germans, but at least we’re better than the Italians,’’ Mr. Fourquet said. “But a few weeks into the epidemic, we found ourselves in the same situation as the Italians. So in our collective unconscious, we felt we were much closer to the Club Med of nations of southern Europe than to Germany.’’ | “France tends to compare itself unfavorably to Germany, but we reassure ourselves by comparing ourselves to the Italians: We’re not as good as the Germans, but at least we’re better than the Italians,’’ Mr. Fourquet said. “But a few weeks into the epidemic, we found ourselves in the same situation as the Italians. So in our collective unconscious, we felt we were much closer to the Club Med of nations of southern Europe than to Germany.’’ |
| It was President Macron himself who invited comparisons with World War II. As he tried to rally the French before the start of a 55-day lockdown, Mr. Macron said repeatedly that France was at “war’’ against the virus. In emotive terms, he compared yesterday’s soldiers with today’s health care workers. | It was President Macron himself who invited comparisons with World War II. As he tried to rally the French before the start of a 55-day lockdown, Mr. Macron said repeatedly that France was at “war’’ against the virus. In emotive terms, he compared yesterday’s soldiers with today’s health care workers. |
| Mr. Macron appeared to be trying to evoke the brighter chapters of France’s wartime narrative — the Resistance and its role in the Allied victory. But events on the ground led others to point to far darker and more painful ones. | Mr. Macron appeared to be trying to evoke the brighter chapters of France’s wartime narrative — the Resistance and its role in the Allied victory. But events on the ground led others to point to far darker and more painful ones. |
| With France desperately lacking masks and other protective gear, some health care workers were reduced to wearing garbage bags. The government organized “airlifts’’ of masks from China to France, and the word itself and related images conjured up the humanitarian aid that France once gave to its former African colonies. | With France desperately lacking masks and other protective gear, some health care workers were reduced to wearing garbage bags. The government organized “airlifts’’ of masks from China to France, and the word itself and related images conjured up the humanitarian aid that France once gave to its former African colonies. |
| “We realized we were an underdeveloped nation,’’ said Philippe Juvin, the head of the emergency department at the Georges Pompidou European Hospital in Paris and a politician who is mayor of La Garenne-Colombes, a town just west of Paris. “‘Strange Defeat’ made us aware of weaknesses that we had wanted to ignore, and something similar happened this time.’’ | “We realized we were an underdeveloped nation,’’ said Philippe Juvin, the head of the emergency department at the Georges Pompidou European Hospital in Paris and a politician who is mayor of La Garenne-Colombes, a town just west of Paris. “‘Strange Defeat’ made us aware of weaknesses that we had wanted to ignore, and something similar happened this time.’’ |
| Bloch, the author of the book, was a historian and World War I veteran. He volunteered to serve on the front lines in 1939 and later joined the Resistance, before being executed by the Gestapo in 1944. | Bloch, the author of the book, was a historian and World War I veteran. He volunteered to serve on the front lines in 1939 and later joined the Resistance, before being executed by the Gestapo in 1944. |
| In 1940, as a captain who oversaw fuel supplies at the headquarters of France’s First Army, he enjoyed an insider’s view of France’s defeat: an overly bureaucratic and rigid military leadership, hewing to theories and traditions, was incapable of reacting to the German threat. | In 1940, as a captain who oversaw fuel supplies at the headquarters of France’s First Army, he enjoyed an insider’s view of France’s defeat: an overly bureaucratic and rigid military leadership, hewing to theories and traditions, was incapable of reacting to the German threat. |
| Updated June 24, 2020 | |
| Scientists around the country have tried to identify everyday materials that do a good job of filtering microscopic particles. In recent tests, HEPA furnace filters scored high, as did vacuum cleaner bags, fabric similar to flannel pajamas and those of 600-count pillowcases. Other materials tested included layered coffee filters and scarves and bandannas. These scored lower, but still captured a small percentage of particles. | |
| A commentary published this month on the website of the British Journal of Sports Medicine points out that covering your face during exercise “comes with issues of potential breathing restriction and discomfort” and requires “balancing benefits versus possible adverse events.” Masks do alter exercise, says Cedric X. Bryant, the president and chief science officer of the American Council on Exercise, a nonprofit organization that funds exercise research and certifies fitness professionals. “In my personal experience,” he says, “heart rates are higher at the same relative intensity when you wear a mask.” Some people also could experience lightheadedness during familiar workouts while masked, says Len Kravitz, a professor of exercise science at the University of New Mexico. | A commentary published this month on the website of the British Journal of Sports Medicine points out that covering your face during exercise “comes with issues of potential breathing restriction and discomfort” and requires “balancing benefits versus possible adverse events.” Masks do alter exercise, says Cedric X. Bryant, the president and chief science officer of the American Council on Exercise, a nonprofit organization that funds exercise research and certifies fitness professionals. “In my personal experience,” he says, “heart rates are higher at the same relative intensity when you wear a mask.” Some people also could experience lightheadedness during familiar workouts while masked, says Len Kravitz, a professor of exercise science at the University of New Mexico. |
| The steroid, dexamethasone, is the first treatment shown to reduce mortality in severely ill patients, according to scientists in Britain. The drug appears to reduce inflammation caused by the immune system, protecting the tissues. In the study, dexamethasone reduced deaths of patients on ventilators by one-third, and deaths of patients on oxygen by one-fifth. | The steroid, dexamethasone, is the first treatment shown to reduce mortality in severely ill patients, according to scientists in Britain. The drug appears to reduce inflammation caused by the immune system, protecting the tissues. In the study, dexamethasone reduced deaths of patients on ventilators by one-third, and deaths of patients on oxygen by one-fifth. |
| The coronavirus emergency relief package gives many American workers paid leave if they need to take time off because of the virus. It gives qualified workers two weeks of paid sick leave if they are ill, quarantined or seeking diagnosis or preventive care for coronavirus, or if they are caring for sick family members. It gives 12 weeks of paid leave to people caring for children whose schools are closed or whose child care provider is unavailable because of the coronavirus. It is the first time the United States has had widespread federally mandated paid leave, and includes people who don’t typically get such benefits, like part-time and gig economy workers. But the measure excludes at least half of private-sector workers, including those at the country’s largest employers, and gives small employers significant leeway to deny leave. | The coronavirus emergency relief package gives many American workers paid leave if they need to take time off because of the virus. It gives qualified workers two weeks of paid sick leave if they are ill, quarantined or seeking diagnosis or preventive care for coronavirus, or if they are caring for sick family members. It gives 12 weeks of paid leave to people caring for children whose schools are closed or whose child care provider is unavailable because of the coronavirus. It is the first time the United States has had widespread federally mandated paid leave, and includes people who don’t typically get such benefits, like part-time and gig economy workers. But the measure excludes at least half of private-sector workers, including those at the country’s largest employers, and gives small employers significant leeway to deny leave. |
| So far, the evidence seems to show it does. A widely cited paper published in April suggests that people are most infectious about two days before the onset of coronavirus symptoms and estimated that 44 percent of new infections were a result of transmission from people who were not yet showing symptoms. Recently, a top expert at the World Health Organization stated that transmission of the coronavirus by people who did not have symptoms was “very rare,” but she later walked back that statement. | So far, the evidence seems to show it does. A widely cited paper published in April suggests that people are most infectious about two days before the onset of coronavirus symptoms and estimated that 44 percent of new infections were a result of transmission from people who were not yet showing symptoms. Recently, a top expert at the World Health Organization stated that transmission of the coronavirus by people who did not have symptoms was “very rare,” but she later walked back that statement. |
| Touching contaminated objects and then infecting ourselves with the germs is not typically how the virus spreads. But it can happen. A number of studies of flu, rhinovirus, coronavirus and other microbes have shown that respiratory illnesses, including the new coronavirus, can spread by touching contaminated surfaces, particularly in places like day care centers, offices and hospitals. But a long chain of events has to happen for the disease to spread that way. The best way to protect yourself from coronavirus — whether it’s surface transmission or close human contact — is still social distancing, washing your hands, not touching your face and wearing masks. | Touching contaminated objects and then infecting ourselves with the germs is not typically how the virus spreads. But it can happen. A number of studies of flu, rhinovirus, coronavirus and other microbes have shown that respiratory illnesses, including the new coronavirus, can spread by touching contaminated surfaces, particularly in places like day care centers, offices and hospitals. But a long chain of events has to happen for the disease to spread that way. The best way to protect yourself from coronavirus — whether it’s surface transmission or close human contact — is still social distancing, washing your hands, not touching your face and wearing masks. |
| A study by European scientists is the first to document a strong statistical link between genetic variations and Covid-19, the illness caused by the coronavirus. Having Type A blood was linked to a 50 percent increase in the likelihood that a patient would need to get oxygen or to go on a ventilator, according to the new study. | A study by European scientists is the first to document a strong statistical link between genetic variations and Covid-19, the illness caused by the coronavirus. Having Type A blood was linked to a 50 percent increase in the likelihood that a patient would need to get oxygen or to go on a ventilator, according to the new study. |
| The unemployment rate fell to 13.3 percent in May, the Labor Department said on June 5, an unexpected improvement in the nation’s job market as hiring rebounded faster than economists expected. Economists had forecast the unemployment rate to increase to as much as 20 percent, after it hit 14.7 percent in April, which was the highest since the government began keeping official statistics after World War II. But the unemployment rate dipped instead, with employers adding 2.5 million jobs, after more than 20 million jobs were lost in April. | The unemployment rate fell to 13.3 percent in May, the Labor Department said on June 5, an unexpected improvement in the nation’s job market as hiring rebounded faster than economists expected. Economists had forecast the unemployment rate to increase to as much as 20 percent, after it hit 14.7 percent in April, which was the highest since the government began keeping official statistics after World War II. But the unemployment rate dipped instead, with employers adding 2.5 million jobs, after more than 20 million jobs were lost in April. |
| Common symptoms include fever, a dry cough, fatigue and difficulty breathing or shortness of breath. Some of these symptoms overlap with those of the flu, making detection difficult, but runny noses and stuffy sinuses are less common. The C.D.C. has also added chills, muscle pain, sore throat, headache and a new loss of the sense of taste or smell as symptoms to look out for. Most people fall ill five to seven days after exposure, but symptoms may appear in as few as two days or as many as 14 days. | Common symptoms include fever, a dry cough, fatigue and difficulty breathing or shortness of breath. Some of these symptoms overlap with those of the flu, making detection difficult, but runny noses and stuffy sinuses are less common. The C.D.C. has also added chills, muscle pain, sore throat, headache and a new loss of the sense of taste or smell as symptoms to look out for. Most people fall ill five to seven days after exposure, but symptoms may appear in as few as two days or as many as 14 days. |
| If air travel is unavoidable, there are some steps you can take to protect yourself. Most important: Wash your hands often, and stop touching your face. If possible, choose a window seat. A study from Emory University found that during flu season, the safest place to sit on a plane is by a window, as people sitting in window seats had less contact with potentially sick people. Disinfect hard surfaces. When you get to your seat and your hands are clean, use disinfecting wipes to clean the hard surfaces at your seat like the head and arm rest, the seatbelt buckle, the remote, screen, seat back pocket and the tray table. If the seat is hard and nonporous or leather or pleather, you can wipe that down, too. (Using wipes on upholstered seats could lead to a wet seat and spreading of germs rather than killing them.) | If air travel is unavoidable, there are some steps you can take to protect yourself. Most important: Wash your hands often, and stop touching your face. If possible, choose a window seat. A study from Emory University found that during flu season, the safest place to sit on a plane is by a window, as people sitting in window seats had less contact with potentially sick people. Disinfect hard surfaces. When you get to your seat and your hands are clean, use disinfecting wipes to clean the hard surfaces at your seat like the head and arm rest, the seatbelt buckle, the remote, screen, seat back pocket and the tray table. If the seat is hard and nonporous or leather or pleather, you can wipe that down, too. (Using wipes on upholstered seats could lead to a wet seat and spreading of germs rather than killing them.) |
| If you’ve been exposed to the coronavirus or think you have, and have a fever or symptoms like a cough or difficulty breathing, call a doctor. They should give you advice on whether you should be tested, how to get tested, and how to seek medical treatment without potentially infecting or exposing others. | If you’ve been exposed to the coronavirus or think you have, and have a fever or symptoms like a cough or difficulty breathing, call a doctor. They should give you advice on whether you should be tested, how to get tested, and how to seek medical treatment without potentially infecting or exposing others. |
| While French leaders were re-enacting World War I with an emphasis on infantry and artillery, the Germans came with tanks, airplanes, trucks and motorcycles. | While French leaders were re-enacting World War I with an emphasis on infantry and artillery, the Germans came with tanks, airplanes, trucks and motorcycles. |
| In a painful summary of France’s defeat, Bloch wrote: “Our leaders, or those who acted in their names, were incapable of thinking in terms of a new war.’’ He added, “The German victory was, essentially, an intellectual victory.’’ | In a painful summary of France’s defeat, Bloch wrote: “Our leaders, or those who acted in their names, were incapable of thinking in terms of a new war.’’ He added, “The German victory was, essentially, an intellectual victory.’’ |
| In much the same way, some see an intellectual defeat in France’s handling of the epidemic. | In much the same way, some see an intellectual defeat in France’s handling of the epidemic. |
| Though France and Germany devote the same share of their economies to health care, France was slow in grasping the risks of the virus and in mobilizing against it, said Jean-Jacques Roche, a specialist on French foreign policy at the University Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas. | Though France and Germany devote the same share of their economies to health care, France was slow in grasping the risks of the virus and in mobilizing against it, said Jean-Jacques Roche, a specialist on French foreign policy at the University Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas. |
| France’s response was mired in multiple bureaucratic layers that slowed the transmission of information through a highly centralized system of government, said Mr. Roche, who is also a former director of research at the government’s Institute of Advanced Studies in National Defense. | France’s response was mired in multiple bureaucratic layers that slowed the transmission of information through a highly centralized system of government, said Mr. Roche, who is also a former director of research at the government’s Institute of Advanced Studies in National Defense. |
| “France’s administrative structures themselves are being called into question,’’ Mr. Roche said. “Instead of a surface polish, they need to be really rebuilt.’’ | “France’s administrative structures themselves are being called into question,’’ Mr. Roche said. “Instead of a surface polish, they need to be really rebuilt.’’ |
| In another wartime reference, Mr. Macron said that France would emerge from the current crisis and return to “happy days.’’ | In another wartime reference, Mr. Macron said that France would emerge from the current crisis and return to “happy days.’’ |
| But as others consider a post-virus Europe — which Mr. Macron had once dreamed of leading after the retirement of Angela Merkel, the German chancellor — they are not so sure. | But as others consider a post-virus Europe — which Mr. Macron had once dreamed of leading after the retirement of Angela Merkel, the German chancellor — they are not so sure. |
| “Le Point,’’ a major weekly magazine, featured Ms. Merkel on its cover with a simple headline: “The Boss.’’ In a meticulous analysis of the handling of the epidemic by France and Germany, “Le Monde’’ concluded that the crisis had led to another replay in the “eternal match between France and Germany, at the end of which the winner always seems to be the same.’’ | “Le Point,’’ a major weekly magazine, featured Ms. Merkel on its cover with a simple headline: “The Boss.’’ In a meticulous analysis of the handling of the epidemic by France and Germany, “Le Monde’’ concluded that the crisis had led to another replay in the “eternal match between France and Germany, at the end of which the winner always seems to be the same.’’ |
| It was the latest chapter in a relationship that has tortured and defined France since it was defeated by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, putting an end to French hegemony in Europe, said Pierre Vermeren, a historian who teaches at the University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne. | It was the latest chapter in a relationship that has tortured and defined France since it was defeated by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, putting an end to French hegemony in Europe, said Pierre Vermeren, a historian who teaches at the University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne. |
| “In the 1870s, after France realized that it was outclassed by Germany, there was what was called the German crisis in French thinking,’’ Mr. Vermeren said. “France couldn’t understand: ‘How did the Germans do it? Why are their schools better? Why are their soldiers better trained? Why are their soldiers athletic, and not ours?’ | “In the 1870s, after France realized that it was outclassed by Germany, there was what was called the German crisis in French thinking,’’ Mr. Vermeren said. “France couldn’t understand: ‘How did the Germans do it? Why are their schools better? Why are their soldiers better trained? Why are their soldiers athletic, and not ours?’ |
| “This has been going for 150 years.’’ | “This has been going for 150 years.’’ |