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Nobel Prize in Chemistry Is Awarded to 3 Scientists for Using Evolution in Design of Molecules Nobel Prize in Chemistry Is Awarded to 3 Scientists for Using Evolution in Design of Molecules
(about 5 hours later)
Three scientists shared this year’s Nobel Prize in Chemistry for tapping the power of evolutionary biology to design molecules with a range of practical uses. Those include new drugs, more efficient and less toxic reactions in the manufacture of chemicals and plant-derived fuels to replace oil, gas and coal extracted from the ground. Three scientists shared this year’s Nobel Prize in Chemistry for tapping the power of evolutionary biology to design molecules with a range of practical uses.
Those include new drugs, more efficient and less toxic reactions in the manufacture of chemicals and plant-derived fuels to replace oil, gas and coal extracted from the ground.
Half of the prize and the accompanying $1 million went to Frances H. Arnold, a professor of chemical engineering at the California Institute of Technology. She is only the fifth woman to win a chemistry Nobel and the first since 2009.Half of the prize and the accompanying $1 million went to Frances H. Arnold, a professor of chemical engineering at the California Institute of Technology. She is only the fifth woman to win a chemistry Nobel and the first since 2009.
The other half of the prize is shared by George P. Smith, an emeritus professor of biological sciences at the University of Missouri, and Gregory P. Winter, a biochemist at the M.R.C. Laboratory of Molecular Biology in England.The other half of the prize is shared by George P. Smith, an emeritus professor of biological sciences at the University of Missouri, and Gregory P. Winter, a biochemist at the M.R.C. Laboratory of Molecular Biology in England.
Dr. Arnold conducted the first directed evolution of enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. Dr. Smith developed a method, known as phage display, in which a virus that infects bacteria can be used to evolve new proteins. Dr. Winter has used phage display to produce new pharmaceuticals. The prize highlights the narrowing of the gap between biology and some fields of chemistry as chemists turn to nature for inspiration.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said the scientists had managed to harness the power of evolution in test tubes. Enzymes produced through directed evolution are used to manufacture everything from biofuels to medical treatments. Phage display has produced antibodies that can neutralize toxins, counteract autoimmune diseases and even cure metastatic cancer. “I always wanted to be a protein engineer,” Dr. Arnold said in an interview. “I wanted to be an engineer of the biological world.”
“This year’s Nobel Laureates in chemistry have been inspired by the power of evolution and used the same principles — genetic change and selection — to develop proteins that solve mankind’s chemical problems,” the academy said in documents explaining the prizes. At first, Dr. Arnold attempted “rational design,” using logic and knowledge of how proteins function to try to create new enzymes — proteins that act as catalysts for chemical reactions. But enzymes are large, complicated molecules — some consisting of thousands of amino acids — and it is hard to figure out how a shift in one twist of the molecule affects how it works.
Dr. Arnold’s work, which has been utilized to create sustainable biofuels, is “contributing to a greener world,” the academy added. In desperation, she said, she turned to evolution.
Dr. Smith’s development of phage display to link proteins to genes was described by the academy as “brilliant in its simplicity.” Dr. Winter was one of the leaders in using phage display to develop new biomolecules, including disease-blocking antibodies. “I copied nature’s inventions, this wonderful process of evolution, to breed molecules like you breed cats and dogs,” she said.
For this “directed evolution” research, she inserted the gene that produced the enzyme she wanted to study into fast-reproducing bacteria. With mutations of the gene, she could then examine how well variations of the enzyme worked. She chose the one that worked best and repeated the process — just like evolution chooses the survival of the fittest over succeeding generations.
In her initial experiments in the 1990s, she was able to find an enzyme more than 200 times as effective as the one she started with by the third generation.
The next innovation, as highlighted in materials supplied by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, came from Willem P.C. Stemmer, a Dutch researcher who came up with a way to generate a wider assortment of enzyme variants more quickly.
The technique, called DNA shuffling, cut apart different versions of a gene and mixed pieces into a new variant — sort of the molecular equivalent of the genetic mixing in the offspring of two animals. (Nobels are only awarded to living scientists; Dr. Stemmer died in 2013.)
These techniques have led to stain-removing enzymes in laundry detergents and promising advances in the production of biofuels.
Dr. Smith and Dr. Winter were honored for another corner of synthetic biology, where they harnessed the power of bacteriophages — viruses that infect bacteria — for applications that eventually contributed to novel drugs that treat a range of diseases.
Dr. Smith was looking to identify unknown genes that were the blueprints for the production of known peptides — short pieces of protein.
Bacteriophages, which consist of a piece of DNA within a capsule of proteins, proved handy tools. He embedded a variety of candidate genes within the phages’ DNA. The phages then added those proteins to their outer coating.
An antibody is like a key that fits into a specific protein lock. The body’s immune system uses antibodies to identify invading pathogens.
When certain phages succeeded in attaching to a known antibody, the scientists could then make the connection between the peptide and the gene that produced it.
The academy described this approach, known as phage display, as “brilliant in its simplicity.”
Dr. Winter built on Dr. Smith’s work and used phage display to develop antibodies that could serve as new treatments for diseases like multiple sclerosis and cancer. Traditional drugs use small molecules to alter processes within cells. The development of antibodies was outside the expertise of major drug companies.
“In the early 90s, people didn’t believe antibodies could be therapeutics,” Dr. Winter said during a telephone news conference on Wednesday.
Dr. Winter inserted the gene for producing an antibody into the phages and then examined variants of the antibodies, selecting the ones that bound most effectively to the desired targets. Repeated evolution of the gene led to more effective antibodies.
The first antibody drug developed this way, adalimumab, which is sold under the brand name Humira, was approved in 2002 to treat rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis and inflammatory bowel diseases.
Other antibodies are used to kill cancer cells, neutralize anthrax and slow the progress of lupus, an autoimmune disease. Additional antibodies are in testing to treat diseases like Alzheimer’s.
Jacques Dubochet, Joachim Frank and Richard Henderson were recognized for developing a new way to assemble precise three-dimensional images of biological molecules like proteins, DNA and RNA. Their work has helped scientists decipher processes within cells that were previously invisible, and has led to better understanding of viruses like Zika.Jacques Dubochet, Joachim Frank and Richard Henderson were recognized for developing a new way to assemble precise three-dimensional images of biological molecules like proteins, DNA and RNA. Their work has helped scientists decipher processes within cells that were previously invisible, and has led to better understanding of viruses like Zika.
• Arthur Ashkin of the United States, Gérard Mourou of France and Donna Strickland of Canada were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on Tuesday for their work developing tools made of light beams.• Arthur Ashkin of the United States, Gérard Mourou of France and Donna Strickland of Canada were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on Tuesday for their work developing tools made of light beams.
• James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine on Monday for a discovery that the body’s immune system can be used to attack cancer cells.• James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine on Monday for a discovery that the body’s immune system can be used to attack cancer cells.
• The Nobel Peace Prize will be announced on Friday in Norway. Read about last year’s winner, the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons.• The Nobel Peace Prize will be announced on Friday in Norway. Read about last year’s winner, the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons.
• The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science will be announced on Monday in Sweden. Read about last year’s winner, Richard H. Thaler.• The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science will be announced on Monday in Sweden. Read about last year’s winner, Richard H. Thaler.
• The Nobel Prize in Literature has been postponed. The institution that chooses the laureate is embroiled in a scandal involving allegations of sexual misconduct, financial malpractice and repeated leaks — a crisis that led to the departure of several board members and required the intervention of the king of Sweden. Read about last year’s winner, Kazuo Ishiguro.• The Nobel Prize in Literature has been postponed. The institution that chooses the laureate is embroiled in a scandal involving allegations of sexual misconduct, financial malpractice and repeated leaks — a crisis that led to the departure of several board members and required the intervention of the king of Sweden. Read about last year’s winner, Kazuo Ishiguro.